Human Autonomy and Divine Sovereignty: Negotiating Moral Freedom and Predestination in the Qur’an

Article Sidebar

PDF
Published: Dec 20, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15642/mutawatir.2025.15.2.117-157
Keywords:
Qur'anic Ethics Moral Agency Divine Will Qadr and Qada Relational Freedom

Main Article Content

Fakhri Afif
UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung
Irma Riyani
UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung

Abstract

This article pursues a philosophical reading of the Qur’an’s moral discourse on human freedom and divine sovereignty. Through an ethical close reading of Qur’anic verses and a semantic-conceptual analysis of mashī’ah, istiṭā‘ah, mas’ūliyyah, qadr, qaḍā’, and ‘adl, the study brings the philosophical category of relational freedom as a heuristic to the text, demonstrating that the Qur’an’s conceptual architecture actively enriches it. Methodologically, the inquiry draws on Abou El Fadl’s negotiative hermeneutics to navigate the author-text-reader dialectic and to assess the ethical stakes of competing interpretations. The findings establish that the Qur’an presupposes genuine moral agency through its idioms of non-coercion, taklīf, ḥisāb, and the moral evaluation of intention, while situating this agency within a divinely ordered structure of measure and decree grounded in ‘adl. Qadr is construed as a principle of causal measurability, and qaḍā’ as the moment of decisive actualization. The reading rejects predestination as a moral alibi while refusing to inflate human agency into a sovereignty that fractures the tawḥīdic horizon. This study contributes a philosophically rigorous framework for reading Qur’anic moral theology beyond the fatalism-autonomy impasse, and opens a constructive dialogue between Islamic moral thought and contemporary philosophy of agency that neither domesticates the Qur’anic account nor insulates it from critical engagement.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Article Details

How to Cite
Fakhri Afif, & Irma Riyani. (2025). Human Autonomy and Divine Sovereignty: Negotiating Moral Freedom and Predestination in the Qur’an. Mutawatir : Jurnal Keilmuan Tafsir Hadith, 15(2), 117–157. https://doi.org/10.15642/mutawatir.2025.15.2.117-157
Issue
Vol. 15 No. 2 (2025): DECEMBER
Section
Articles
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

References

‘Abduh, Muḥammad. Tafsīr Al-Qur’ān al-Ḥakīm al-Syahīr bi Tafsīr al-Manār. III, edited by Muḥammad Rashid Riḍā. Kairo: Dār al-Manār, 1947.

Abrahamov, Binyamin. “A Re-Examination of al-Ash’arī’s Theory of ‘Kasb’ According to ‘Kitāb al-Luma’.’” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 2 (1989): 210–21.

Abū Zayd, Naṣr Ḥamid. Mafhūm al-Naṣṣ: Dirāsah fī ‘Ulūm al-Qur’ān. Kairo: Al-Markaz al-Thaqafī al-‘Arabī, 2014.

Al-Tamamy, Saud M. S. Averroes, Kant, and the Origins of the Enlightenment: Reason and Revelation in Arab Thought. London & New York: I. B. Tauris, 2014.

Ālūsī (al), Shihāb al-Dīn Maḥmūd. Rūh al-Ma‘ānī fī Tafsīr al-Qur’an wa al-Sab‘ al-Mathānī. XXV, edited by Mahir Habbusy. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Risālah, 2010.

Amin, Aḥmad. Kitāb al-Akhlāq. Mu’assasah Hindāwī, 2011.

Amrullah, Haji Abdulmalik Abdulkarim. Tafsir Al-Azhar. IV. IX. Singapura: Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd Singapura, 2001.

Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Edited and translated by Roger Crisp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Aṣfahānī (al), al-Rāghib. Mufradāt Alfāẓ al-Qur’ān. Edited by Ṣafwān A. Dāwūdī. Damaskus: Dār al-Qalam, 2009.

Assadi, Nasrin Bani. Freedom Revisited: A Comparative Theological Approach to the Question of Free Will in Islam. Paderborn: Brill Schöningh, 2024.

‘Āsyūr, Muḥammad Ṭāhir b.. Tafsīr al-Taḥrīr wa al-Tanwīr. XXVI. Tunis: al-Dār al-Tūnisiyyah li al-Nashr, 1984.

Attar, Mariam al-. Islamic Ethics: Divine Command Theory in Arabo-Islamic Thought. Oxon & New York: Routledge, 2010.

Badawi, Elsaid M., and M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Arabic-English Dictionary of Qur’anic Usage. Leiden: Brill, 2008.

Bannā (al), Jamāl. al-Ta‘addudiyyah fi Mujtama‘ al-Islāmī. Kairo: Dār al-Fikr al-Islāmī, 2001.

Belo, Catarina. Chance and Determinism in Avicenna and Averroes. Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2007.

Bhojani, Ali-Reza. Moral Rationalism and Sharī‘a: Independent Rationality in Modern Shī‘ī Uṣūl al-Fiqh. Oxon & New York: Routledge, 2015.

Brink, David. O. Moral Realism and the Foundations of Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Brockopp, Jonathan E. “Justice and Injustice.” In Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, III, edited by Jane Dammen McAuliffe, 69–74. Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2002.

Campanini, Massimo. An Introduction to Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Caroline Higgitt. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008.

Chakraborti, Chhanda. Introduction to Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Contemporary Issues. Singapore: Springer Nature, 2023.

Clarke, Randolph. “Free Will and the Conditions of Moral Responsibility.” Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition 66, no. 1 (1992): 53–72.

Cook, Michael. The Koran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

D’Ancona, Cristina. “Greek into Arabic: Neoplatonism in Translation.” In The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, edited by Peter Adamson and Richard C. Taylor, 10–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Donaldson, Dwight M. Studies in Muslim Ethics. London: S.P.C.K., 1953.

Draz, Muhammad Abdullah. The Moral World of the Qur’an. Translated by Danielle Robinson and Rebecca Masterton. London & New York: I. B. Tauris, 2008.

El Fadl, Khaled Abou. And God Knows the Soldiers: The Authoritative and Authoritarian in Islamic Discourse. Lanham: University Press of America, 2001.

———. “Qurʾanic Ethics and Islamic Law.” Journal of Islamic Ethics 1, nos. 1–2 (July 2017): 7–28. https://doi.org/10.1163/24685542-12340002.

———. Reasoning with God: Reclaiming Shari’ah in the Modern Age. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

———. Speaking in God’s Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women. London: Oneworld Publications, 2001.

Ess, Josef van. Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam. II, edited by John O’Kane. Leiden: Brill, 2017.

Fadhlullah, M. Husain. Min Waḥy al-Qur’ān. X. Beirut: Dār al-Malāk, 1998.

Fairuzābādī (al), Majd al-Dīn M. b. Ya‘qūb. Baṣā’ir Ẓawī al-Tamyīz fi Laṭāif al-Kitāb al-‘Aziẓ. III. III, edited by Muḥammad A. al-Najjār. Kairo: Lajnah Iḥyā’ al-Turāth al-Islāmī, 1996.

Fakhry, Majid. A History of Islamic Philosophy. Third Edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

———. Ethical Theories in Islam. Second Expanded Edition. Leiden: Brill, 1994.

Frank, Richard. Al-Ghazali and the Ash’arite School. Durham: Duke University Press, 1994.

Frankfurt, Harry G. “Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person.” Journal of Philosophy 68, no. 1 (1971): 5–20. https://doi.org/10.2307/2024717.

Friedmann, Yohanan. Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relation in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Gensler, Harry J. Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Second Edition. New York & London: Routledge, 2011.

Gimaret, Daniel. La Doctrine d’al-Ash’ari. Paris: Cerf, 1990.

Goodman, Lenn Evan. Islamic Humanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Hartmann, Nicolai. Moral Values. New York: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315124766.

Harvey, Ramon. The Qur’an and Just Society. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Edited by Allen W. Wood. Translated by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Hoover, Jon. Ibn Taymiyya’s Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism. Leiden: Brill, 2007.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqī al-Dīn. Minhāj al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah. I, edited by Muhammad Rashad Salim. Riyadh: Jāmi‘at al-Imām Muhammad b. Sa‘ūd al-Islāmiyyah, 1986.

Izutsu, Toshihiko. God and Man in the Qur’an: Semantics of the Qur’anic Weltanschauung. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2002.

Jabal, Muhammad Hasan. Al-Mu‘jam al-Isytiqāqī al-Mu’aṣṣal li Alfāẓ al-Qur’ān al-Karīm. IV. Kairo: Maktabah al-Ādāb, 2010.

Jabiri (al), M. Abid. Al-‘Aql al-Akhlāqī al-‘Arabī: Dirāsah Taḥlīliyyah Naqdiyyah li Nuẓum al-Qiyam fī al-thaqāfah al-‘Arabiyyah. Beirut: Markaz Dirāsāt al-Waḥdah al-‘Arabiyyah, 2001.

Jacobs, Jonathan. Dimensions of Moral Theory: An Introduction to Metaethics and Moral Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.

Kadivar, Mohsen. Blasphemy and Apostasy in Islam: Debates in Shi‘a Jurisprudence. Translated by Hamid Mavani. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021.

———. “Human Action within Divine Creation: A Muslim Perspective.” In God’s Creativity and Human Action: Christian and Muslim Perspectives, edited by Lucinda Mosher and David Marshall, 7–22. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2017.

———. Human Rights and Reformist Islam. Translated by Niki Akhavan. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021.

Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Freedom of Expression in Islam. Revised Edition. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1997.

Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Practical Reason. Edited and translated by Mary Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

———. Critique of Pure Reason. Edited and translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

———. Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Edited and translated by Allen W. Wood. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002.

Khadduri, Majid. The Islamic Conception of Justice. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1984.

Korsgaard, Christine. Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Leaman, Oliver. Averroes and His Philosophy. Oxon: Routledge, 1988.

———. Islam and Morality: A Philosophical Introduction. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019.

Lewis, Bernard. The Jews of Islam. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984.

MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Third Edition. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007.

Madjid, Nurcholis. “Ibn Taymiyya on Kalam and Falsafa: A Problem of Reason and Revelation in Islam.” Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Chicago, 1984.

———. Pintu-Pintu Menuju Tuhan. Jakarta: Dian Rakyat, 2008.

Martin, Richard C., Mark R. Woodward, and Dwi S. Atmaja. Defenders of Reason in Islam: Mu’tazilism from Medieval School to Modern Symbol. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1997.

Mathewes, Charles. Understanding Religious Ethics. Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Michalson, Jr., Gordon. Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Moad, Edward Omar. “Al-Ghazali on Power, Causation, and ‘Acquisition.’” Philosophy East and West 57, no. 1 (2007): 1–13.

Moosa, Ebrahim. Ghazali and the Poetics of Imagination. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.

Moqbel, Tareq H. Ethics in the Qur’ān and the Tafsīr Tradition: From the Polynoia of Scripture to the Homonoia of Exegesis. Leiden: Brill, 2024.

Mughniyyah, M. Jawad. Al-Syī‘ah fī al-Mīzān. Beirut: Dār al-Syurūq, n.d.

———. Tafsīr Al-Kāsyif. V. Beirut: Dār al-Anwār, n.d.

Muṣṭafawī (al), al-‘Allāmah. Al-Taḥqīq fī Kalimāt al-Qur’ān al-Karīm. IX. Tehran: Markaz Nashr Āthār al-‘Allāmah al-Muṣṭafawī, 1965.

Mutahhari, Murtadha. Al-Insān wa al-Qadr. Translated by Muḥammad ‘Alī al-Taskhīrī. Tehran: Al-Masyriq li al-Thaqāfah wa al-Nasyr, 1965.

———. Al-Kalām. Beirut: Dār al-Walā’, 2009.

———. Allah fī Ḥayāh al-Insān. Beirut: Dār al-Hādī, 2006.

———. Divine Justice. Translated by Sulayman Hasan Abidi, Murtaza Alidina, and Shuja Ali Mirza. Qom: International Center for Islamic Studies, 2004.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. 1993: SUNY Press, 1993.

Nussbaum, Martha. Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.

Özervarli, M. Sait. “Divine Wisdom, Human Agency and the Fiṭra in Ibn Taymiyya’s Thought.” In Islamic Theology, Philosophy, and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, edited by Birgit Krawietz and Georges Tamer, 37–60. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2013.

Philipson, Traci. “Aquinas Averroes, and the Human Will.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Marquette University, 2017.

Philpott, Daniel. Religious Freedom in Islam: The Fate of a Universal Human Right in the Muslim World Today. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.

Qāsimī (al), Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn. Maḥāsin al-Tā’wīl. III, edited by Muḥammad Fu’ād ‘Abd al-Bāqī. Mesir: Dār Iḥyā’ al-Kutub al-‘Arabiyyah, 1957.

Qera’ati, Mohsen. Tafsīr al-Nūr. translated by Muhammad Ayyub. Beirut: Dār al-Mu’arrikh al-‘Arabī, 2014.

Qurṭūbī (al), Muḥammad b. Abī Bakr. Al-Jāmi‘ li Aḥkām al-Qur’ān wa al-Mubayyin limā Taḍammanah min al-Sunnah wa Āy al-Furqān. II, edited by ‘Abdullah b. ‘Abd al-Muḥsin. Beirut: Mu’assah al-Risālah, 2006.

Rahbar, Daud. God of Justice: A Study in the Ethical Doctrine of the Qurʾān. Leiden: Brill, 1960.

Rahman, Fazlur. Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982.

———. Islam. Second Edition. New York: The University of Chicago Press, 2002.

———. The Major Themes of the Qur’an. Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980.

Rāzī (al), M. Fakhr al-Dīn. Tafsīr al-Fakhr al-Rāzī al-Musytahir Bi al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr wa Mafātīḥ al-Ghaib. I. XX. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1981.

Reinhart, A. Kevin. “Ethics and the Qur’ān.” In Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, II, edited by Jane Dammen McAuliffe, 55–78. Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2002.

Ricoeur, Paul. Oneself as Another. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992.

———. The Conflict of Interpretations: Essays in Hermeneutics. Edited by Don Ihde. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1974.

Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo. Leibniz: Discourse on Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Sabzawārī (al), Muḥammad. Al-Jadīd fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-Majīd. I. Beirut: Dār al-Ta‘āruf li al-Maṭbū‘āt, 1982.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz. Islam & The Challenge of Human Rights. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

———. “Islamic Ethics: Differentiations.” In The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics, edited by William Schweiker, 254–67. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.

———. Islamic Ethics: Fundamental Aspects of Human Conduct. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.

———. The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

———. “The Qur’ān and Other Religion.” In The Cambridge Companion to the Qur’ān, edited by Jane Dammen McAuliffe, 291–309. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

———. The Qur’an on Religious Pluralism. Washington, D.C.: Centre for Muslim-Christian Understanding and International Affairs, 2005.

Saeed, Abdullah. Islamic Thought: An Introduction. Oxon & New York: Routledge, 2006.

Saemi, Amir. Morality and Revelation in Islamic Thought and Beyond: A New Problem of Evil. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2024.

Schneewind, J. B. The Invention of Autonomy: A History of Modern Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Shabestari, Mohammad Mojtahed. Al-Īmān Wa al-Ḥurriyyah. Translated by Ahmad al-Qabanji. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Intisyār al-‘Arabī, 2013.

Shihab, M. Quraish. Wawasan Al-Quran: Tafsir Tematik Atas Pelbagai Persoalan Umat. Bandung: Mizan, 2013.

Siddiqui, Mona. The Good Muslim: Reflections on Classical Islamic Law and Theology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021.

Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur’an: A Critical Dictionary. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2023.

Sobhani, Ja‘far. Al-Qaḍā’ wa al-Qadr fī al-‘Ilm wa al-Falsafah al-Islāmiyyah. Translated by M. Hadi al-Yusufi. Beirut: Dār al-Aḍwā’, 1987.

———. Al-Tauḥīd wa al-Shirk fī al-Qur’ān al-Karīm. Intishārāt Uswah, 1992.

———. Buḥūth fī al-Milal wa al-Niḥal: Dirāsah Mauḍū‘iyyah Muqāranah li al-Madhāhib al-Islāmiyyah. III. Qom: Muassasah al-Imām al-Ṣādiq, 2006.

Spinoza, Benedict de. Ethics. Edited and translated by Edwin Curley. 1996: Penguin Books, 1996.

Stocker, Michael. Plural and Conflicting Values. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Ṣuyūṭī (al), Jalāl al-Dīn. Al-Itqān fī ‘Ulūm al-Qur’ān. I, edited by M. Salim Hasyim. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 2019.

Shīrāzī, Nāṣir Makārim. Al-Amthal fī Tafsīr Kitab Allah al-Munzal. IX. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-A’lamī li al-Maṭbū‘āt, 2013.

———. Al-Amthal fī Tafsīr Kitab Allah al-Munzal. XIV. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-‘Alamī li al-Maṭbū‘āt, 2013.

Ṭabarī (al), Abī Ja‘far Muḥammad b. Jarīr. Jāmi‘ al-Bayān ‘an Ta’wīl Āyī al-Qur’ān. XIV, edited by ‘Abdullāh b. ‘Abd al-Muḥsin al-Turkī. Kairo: Dār Hijr, 2001.

Ṭabātabā’ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. Al-‘Aqā’id al-Islāmiyyah. Edited by Qāsim al-Hāsyimī. Beirut: Muʾassasah al-‘Alamī li al-Maṭbūʿāt, 2002.

———. Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān. X. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-‘Alamī li al-Maṭbūʿāt, 1997.

———. Uṣūl Al-Falsafah wa al-Manhaj al-Wāqi‘ī. II, edited by Murtadha Mutahhari, translated by Ammar A. Rafif. Iraq: Al-Mu’assasah al-‘Irāqiyyah li al-Mansyar wa al-Tauzī,’ 2016.

Ṭabrāsī (al), ‘Alī al-Faḍl b. al-Ḥasan. Majma‘ al-Bayān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān. IV. Beirut: Dār al-Murtaḍā, 2006.

Taliaferro, Karen. “Ibn Rushd and Natural Law: Mediating Human and Divine Law.” Journal of Islamic Studies 28, no. 1 (January 2017): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/jis/etw045.

Taskin, Zeyneb Betul. “An Occasionalist Reading of Al-Ashʿarī’s Theory of Kasb in Kitāb al-Lumaʿ.” The Muslim World 113, no. 4 (2023): 399–415. https://doi.org/10.1111/muwo.12478.

Taylor, Charles. Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.

Ṭūsī (al), Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan. Al-Tibyān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān. III. Qom: Mu’assasah ‘Āli al-Bayt, 2019.

Vasalou, Sophia. Moral Agents and Their Deserts: The Character of Mu’tazilite Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008.

Wainwright, William J. Religion and Morality. Hants & Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, 2005.

Ware, Owen. Kant on Freedom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Watt, W. Montgomery. Free Will and Predestination in Early Islam. London: Luzac, 1948.

———. Islamic Philosophy and Theology: An Extended Survey. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1985.

Wensinck, A. J. The Muslim Creed: Its Genesis and Historical Development. Oxon & New York: Routledge, 2008.

Wolfson, Harry A. The Philosophy of the Kalam. London: Harvard University Press, 1976.

Yazdi, Muhammad Taqi Mesbah. Al-Akhlāq fī al-Qur’ān. Vol. 1, translated by Kāẓim al-Ṣāliḥī. Beirut: Dār al-Ta‘āruf li al-Maṭbū‘at, 2004.

———. Al-Manhaj al-Jadīd fi Ta’līm al-Falsafah. II, translated by Muḥammad ‘Abd al-Mun‘im al-Khāfānī. Beirut: Dār al-Ta‘āruf li al-Maṭbū‘āt, 2007.

———. Durūs fi Al-‘Aqīdah al-Islāmiyyah. I. Beirut: Dār al-Rasūl al-Akram, 2008.

———. Ma‘Ārif al-Qur’Ān. III, translated by M. ‘Abd al-Mun‘im. Beirut: Al-Dār al-Islāmiyyah, 1989.

———. Meniru Tuhan: Antara “yang Terjadi” & “Yang Mesti Terjadi.” Translated by Ammar Fauzi. Al-Huda: Jakarta, 2006.

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Religion and Politics under the Early ‘Abbāsids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunnī Elite. Leiden: Brill, 1997.

Zimmerman, Michael J. An Essay on Moral Responsibility. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1988.